Cercle Fustel de Coulanges

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The Fustel de Coulanges Circle (French: Cercle Fustel de Coulanges) was a French political association that gathered teachers and militated against the public school and its ideology from the 1920s until the early 1970s. The circle took its name from the historian Fustel de Coulanges.

History

The early years

The Cercle was founded in the fall of 1926, and really functioned from 1927–28.[1] Its founders were Parisian secondary school teachers, notably Georges Cantecor, director of its Cahiers until his death in 1932, and Henri Boegner, its secretary and then general secretary, and by an elementary school inspector, Pierre Dufrenne. They were joined by professors from the provinces, such as Pierre Heinrich, who held the chair of history at the khâgne of the Lycée du Parc in Lyon. It was chaired by the physicist Louis Dunoyer de Segonzac, professor at the Sorbonne.

Academics, secondary school teachers and schoolteachers such as Serge Jeanneret joined the circle. At the 1932 banquet, Louis Dunoyer declared: "The Faculty of Law, the Sorbonne, the École Normale Supérieure, the Faculty of Medicine have their representatives among us. All the boys' high schools, except perhaps Henri-IV and Condorcet. Many agrégés are among us, and what is more, members of the bureau of the société des agrégés and of the syndicat des professeurs de lycée. I see the kind presence of several members of the female secondary education. There are also many college teachers. There are also teachers from the École des hautes études commerciales and the École Arago. The free education, public or private, is interested in us [...] the ardent and numerous phalanx of our young members of the primary education".[2] Its membership was small at first: it claimed more than 200 members in 1928, 790 in 1931, including 300 members in Paris and 26 in the colonies, 1,400 in 1934, 1,500 in 1935.[3]

There were local groups in the provinces, in Strasbourg or Toulouse, around the dean of the faculty of medicine Jacques-Émile Abelous, a Protestant.[4]

The founders

Georges Cantecor (1863–1932) was an associate professor of philosophy and the author of several articles and books, notably on Descartes, Kant and positivism. His career took place in Nantes from 1891, at the Lycée Clemenceau,[5] in Bordeaux, in Reims, and then at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and Pasteur in Paris. He died in December 1932 at the age of 65. Initially a Dreyfus supporter and member of the Ligue de l'enseignement, he moved towards nationalism, without joining Maurras' Action Française.[6][lower-alpha 1]

Henri Boegner (1884–1960), also a professor of philosophy, was a professor of classical literature at the Lycée Molière. Son of Alfred Boegner, a pastor who was the director of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, and cousin of Pastor Marc Boegner, he came from a Protestant family but converted to Catholicism. He was a friend since 1908 and the brother-in-law of Gabriel Marcel. Initially influenced by Georges Sorel and Charles Péguy, he became a Maurrassian and presided over the Action Française section in Mulhouse when he was a professor there.[7]

Pierre Dufrenne first taught in the provinces and in Paris before becoming an inspector of primary education in the Oise. He was a former trade unionist of the extreme left[8] who joined the Action Française and converted to Catholicism before 1914.[9] He died on December 23, 1930.

Pierre Heinrich (1874–1936) was the fifth of six children of a dean of the Faculty of Letters in Lyon, Guillaume Alfred Heinrich.[10] Unlike his father, he failed the competitive examination for the École Normale Supérieure; as a student of the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, he was only admitted in 1895.[11] He was, however, agrégé d'histoire (1901)[12] and docteur ès lettres (1907).[lower-alpha 2] He taught history to the khâgneux students at the Lycée du Parc in Lyon from 1917 until his death in May 1936, after having been a teacher at the Lycées of Orléans, Valenciennes and the Lycée Lakanal in Paris. Like his father, he was a member of the Congrégation des Messieurs (1923), the oldest and most prestigious Catholic organization in Lyon, he has chaired the special council of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul since 1921. Under his presidency, the number of conferences increased from 25 to 43, and he was responsible for founding the first women's conference.[13]

In December 1917 he took over the Bulletin des Professeurs catholiques de l'Université from Joseph Lotte, of the Association des maîtres catholiques. He was hostile to both anti-clericalism and the Christian Democrats. His known sympathies for the Action Française caused a stir; he resisted pressure for a time thanks to the protection of Cardinal Maurin before leaving the presidency of the Lyon group of Catholic academics — taken over by André Latreille — in October 1928 and suspending his bulletin.[14] In 1910 he married Gabrielle Ollier, daughter of the surgeon Louis Léopold Ollier. Heinrich was presented as "a faithful friend and firm disciple of Charles Maurras and the Action française".[15]

Since 1920, Dufrenne and Heinrich have been active in the Association de l'École française and its periodical, La Revue de l'école, of which Dufrenne was the director and of which they were the founders and administrators of the society that published it, along with teachers such as Maurice Jeannard, a future member of the editorial board of L'École française, or Émile Bocquillon.[16]

Hosting personalities from the academic right

Between the wars, its magazine and its meetings, notably its annual banquet, welcomed great military leaders such as Marshal Hubert Lyautey — he presided over the 1932 banquet[lower-alpha 3] —, or General Maxime Weygand.[lower-alpha 4] As well as intellectuals such as Léon Bérard,[17] Albert Rivaud, lecturer on several occasions, collaborator of the Cahiers and of the Ecole française[lower-alpha 5] —, the academician Abel Bonnard[lower-alpha 6] — who presided over the 1931 banquet, the academician Louis Bertrand — He presided over the 1928 banquet, attended those of 1929 and 1931 —, Bernard Faÿ,[lower-alpha 7] Daniel Halévy,[lower-alpha 8] René Gillouin,[lower-alpha 9] André Bellessort,[lower-alpha 10] Pierre de Labriolle, of the Institute, professor at the Sorbonne — who presided over the banquet of 1937[lower-alpha 11] —, the law professors Louis Le Fur and Achille Mestre,[lower-alpha 12] etc. Less frequent were the political militants — the Count Armand de Puységur, president of the National Anti-Masonic League, in 1934 —, the Parisian elected officials — Gillouin or Louis Darquier de Pellepoix (1937) — or the members of parliament (the deputies of Paris Fernand Wiedemann-Goiran and René Dommange in 1937).

The Circle and the Action française

The circle was very close to the royalists of Charles Maurras' Action française, without being dependent on them and welcomed teachers who came from or sympathized with the league, such as Louis Dunoyer, Boegner, Pierre Heinrich, Dean Abelous of Toulouse,[18] Pierre Dufrenne, Henri Carteron,[19][lower-alpha 13] lecturer in the history of philosophy at the Faculté des lettres in Strasbourg (from 1923 until his death in 1929, The young professor of philosophy Olivier Pozzo di Borgo (1900–1991)[lower-alpha 14] — a future Resistance fighter and general inspector of secondary education from 1945,[lower-alpha 15] and a left-wing liberal after the war[lower-alpha 16] —, or the public school teacher Serge Jeanneret, leader of the corporative Union of teachers,[41] a member of the Cercle, and of its periodical L'École française.

Maurras, the tutelary figure of the circle, was invited to preside over its first congress, in June 1928, but prevented from doing so,[lower-alpha 17] he was replaced by Louis Bertrand. He presided over the 1929 congress and participated in several banquets afterwards, sometimes speaking at them. Other leaders of the league (Maurice Pujo, the Marquis de Roux, Georges Calzant, Baron François de Lassus[lower-alpha 18]) and Maurrassian personalities attended its banquets, such as Henri Massis, who presided over it in 1935,[lower-alpha 19] Léon Mirman — this regular of banquets presided over it in 1933 —, Georges Claude, Théophile Alajouanine, General Abel Clément-Grandcourt, collaborator of the military page of the Action française,[lower-alpha 20] Pierre Gaxotte, Doctor Charles Fiessenger (doctor and friend of Maurras, animator of the medical banquets of the Action française), etc.

Among its lecturers, the Cercle welcomed well-known members of the Action française, such as in 1933 the president of the Bar, Marie de Roux, and Firmin Bacconnier.[45] The Cercle paid tribute to Maurras, who was imprisoned at the time, in December 1936 at a meeting presided over by André Bellessort, in which Georges Claude, Charles Fiessinger, Xavier de Magallon, and Bonnard participated. Bellessort, an associate professor, Rivaud, a professor at the Faculty of Sciences, and Dunoyer praised him, without any reservation. According to Dunoyer, "without the thought of the Maurrasian action, the Cercle Fustel de Coulanges, such as it exists, would never have been born. If Maurras had not set up a critique of democracy and a theory of monarchy [...], it is doubtful that those of us who are not positively royalist would have become anti-democratic, but it is even more doubtful [...] that most of the intellectuals, the professors [...] who are counted in great numbers among us, would have become royalists."[46]

An association militating against the republican ideology of public school during the Third Republic

From October 1928, the Circle published a journal, Les Cahiers (with a print run of 1,500 copies in 1935), in which historical or pedagogical studies were published, as well as reflective articles; it organized conferences, which were often reproduced in the Cahiers; it held an annual reunion[47] and a banquet at the end of the academic year, in which students preparing for teaching, such as the future historian Philippe Ariès, participated; and it held congresses from 1934 on.[48] He participated in the parade for the Joan of Arc festival from 1934 with the teachers of the Union corporative des instituteurs, his satellite.[49]

The Parisian right-wing press echoed its existence and its program, as early as 1928.[50] The Cercle sent its opinions to it from 1932 onwards, concerning the project of devoting a half-day in school and high school to the action of Aristide Briand, deceased, the bête noire of the nationalists and the Action française.[51] Or about a circular on the entrance to the sixth grade, prefiguring the unique school and seeing in it without nuances "the beginnings of an attempt by the State to take over childhood and to realize a kind of pedagogical communism deadly to the intellectual independence of teachers as well as pupils",[52] and then on the project of reform of teaching in 1937.[53] Or his opinion on a brawl between two Parisian high school students, which was an opportunity to denigrate the Common Front.[54] In 1936, the Cercle published a work entitled L'éducation et l'idée de patrie (Education and the Idea of Fatherland), with a preface by Abel Bonnard. It brought together studies carried out between 1929 and 1933 on patriotism in schools by Henri Boegner, Albert Rivaud, Olivier Pozzo di Borgo, Henri Carteron and Serge Jeanneret.[55]

The members of the Circle were for social order and school hierarchy. The main targets of the Circle were the single school and its ideology, the democratization of education and the free secondary education — this lead, according to Olivier Pozzo di Borgo, to an "inordinate increase in the number of students and a lowering of the level of studies", to the detriment of "teaching and the dignity of the teacher", whereas inequality is natural and fertile, and "necessary barriers" are needed, and it is advisable to look for "not quantity, but quality". It was therefore necessary to have "few scholarships, but which subsidize widely"[56] — ministers like Jean Zay. They fought for the defense of patriotism in education, accused of propagating pacifism, and of the humanities. The circle was part of the cenacles in which a part of the ideology of the National Revolution was elaborated before the war.

The members of the circle wanted to renovate teaching, especially that of history. Hence the decision in 1931 to write textbooks for primary schools, written by Pierre Heinrich and Antoinette de Beaucorps (1876–1933), an associate professor at the Lycée Molière.[57] The place of the French Revolution in education in particular posed a problem for them. In 1939, for the 150th anniversary of the Revolution, the circle organized a meeting with Bonnard, Serge Jeanneret, Faÿ, Daniel Halévy, and Pierre Boutang among others. The speakers showed "with a vengeful vigor, the falseness of some of the legends to the glory of the Revolution" and Dunoyer denounced "the debauchery of historical myths".[58][59]

Within the high school teachers' union, Boegner and others campaigned for this union not to join the CGT, and the Cercle sought to block the communist and socialist left in the University, denouncing for example the teachers' strikes.[60]

First reconstruction in 1941

After the 1940 debacle and the establishment of the Vichy government, the circle was reconstituted from March 1941 to 1944, in the occupied zone, around Boegner, and in the free zone, in Clermont-Ferrand, around Pierre Ousset, general secretary for the free zone, the Maurrasian Pierre Boutang, and Charles Hauter, professor at the Protestant theology faculty in Strasbourg.[61] Conferences were given in the latter city under its auspices: Maurras, who praised the action of the Cercle to his readers,[62] Albert Rivaud, and Henri Massis[63] were present. In Paris, at the Sorbonne, conferences were held at the end of 1941 on the question of education.[lower-alpha 21] They were chaired by Daniel Halévy, who in 1939 had published articles in the circle's Cahiers against republican school textbooks.

Its leaders welcomed certain decisions taken by the French state in the field of education.[64] Two people close to the Cercle were Vichy ministers of public instruction, Albert Rivaud and Abel Bonnard. Boegner and Dunoyer were appointed in 1942 as members of the Vichy government's commission for the study of youth issues.[65] On the other hand, Jérôme Carcopino was not a sympathizer of the Cercle, but Boegner and his friends sought his support to make their theses triumph, in particular the renovation of school textbooks.[66][lower-alpha 22] Maurras complained in 1942 that the history textbooks written by Pierre Heinrich, ignored by national education officials under the Third Republic, had not yet been adopted, because of "administrative sabotage — not to say betrayal — of the Marshal's work."[67]

Second reconstruction in 1953

Still led by Henri Boegner until his death in 1960,[lower-alpha 23] the Cercle reconstituted itself in 1953, published its Cahiers again in December 1953, and held its new annual banquet in 1954. It opposed the school projects of the Fourth Republic (Langevin-Wallon, Lapie, André Marie projects), then those of the Gaullist Republic.[69] At the same time, Boegner was one of the main architects of the rebirth of the royalist current of Action française after the war, beginning in 1945. He campaigned for the liberation of Maurras, like Albert Rivaud or Daniel Halévy, and collaborated in Aspects de la France, an house organ of L'Action française; he was even briefly its co-director before his death in 1960.[70]

In his notebooks, banquets and meetings, one finds names already met before the war: General Maxime Weygand, who presided over the 1954 banquet,[71] Albert Rivaud, who "until his death, either during the Occupation or afterwards, did not cease to work for the circle",[72]. Daniel Halévy, who presided over the 1956 banquet, Serge Jeanneret, who was present at the 1954 banquet, Louis Dunoyer, and Léon Bérard, who presided over a meeting in 1956.[73] However, new names appeared: Claude-Joseph Gignoux, director of La Revue des Deux Mondes,[lower-alpha 24] Achille Dauphin-Meunier (1954), François Natter,[lower-alpha 25] Roger Grand (1954),[lower-alpha 26] René Poirier (1956). Boegner took part in a dinner-debate of the Center for Political and Civic Studies (CEPEC) in 1955 on the question of educational reform; there he met Albert Rivaud, the speaker, and René Gillouin, the organizer of the Centre.[76] Weygand was also the honorary president of the CEPEC.

Third reconstruction in 1966

Georges Drieu La Rochelle, a professor at the Lycée Jean-Baptiste Say and the new secretary general of the Cercle, tried to revive the organization in 1966, launching an appeal co-signed by Henri Massis, Roger Dion, a professor at the Collège de France, Jacques Bentegeat, a professor at the Faculty of Medicine in Bordeaux, and Canon F. Calta, professor at the Catholic University of Angers.[77] Drieu La Rochelle joined the National Academic Civic Action Movement, founded in 1958 against the "defeatists" in Algeria and the left-wing university unions, co-signed in 1960 the Manifesto of French Intellectuals for Resistance to Abandonment, collaborated in L'Esprit public, and also contributed to Aspects de la France.[78] The Cahiers reappeared from 1966 to 1973.

Notes

Footnotes

  1. ↑ He had as pupils Alphonse de Châteaubriant, in Nantes, Maurice de Gandillac, in Paris (who evokes him in his 2014 book Le Siècle traversé: Souvenirs de neuf décennies; he presents him "seduced in politics by the Action française"), among others.
  2. ↑ He defended his thesis on December 9, 1907 before the Faculty of Letters of the University of Paris. His complementary thesis is entitled L'abbé Prévost et la Louisiane, étude sur la valeur historique de Manon Lescaut. His main thesis is on Louisiana under the India Company, 1717–1731 (read online). He received an honorable mention: Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, Vol. IX, No. 4 (1907), p. 309.
  3. ↑ He also participated in the 1933 banquet, but briefly.
  4. ↑ In 1936 and 1937.
  5. ↑ He presided over the 1934 banquet: "Le banquet Fustel de Coulanges," L'Action française (juin 15, 1934). He also participated in those of 1935 (speech at the 1935 banquet: "Le banquet du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Journal des débats (juin 25, 1935), 1936, 1937 and 1938. See one of his lectures in 1935 on Marxism: "Une conférence du professeur Rivaud au cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Journal des débats (novembre 30, 1935).
  6. ↑ See "Au banquet du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Le Figaro (17 juin 1931). He also spoke at the banquets of 1936 and 1937.
  7. ↑ In 1935 and 1937.
  8. ↑ In 1934 and 1936. Boegner was a faithful visitor to his salon on the Quai de l'Horloge.
  9. ↑ He participated in the banquets of 1929, 1930 and 1934.
  10. ↑ In 1930, 1932; elected to the Académie française, he presided over the banquet in 1936.
  11. ↑ He took part in other banquets, as in 1934, 1935 and 1938.
  12. ↑ In 1928 and 1930.
  13. ↑ Born in 1891, eligible for the ENS, professor of philosophy in Montluçon, Toulon, Châteauroux and Montpellier, agrégé of philosophy in 1919, doctor of letters in 1923. He was sympathetic to the Action Française, but he was not a member. In 1928 he initiated a protest by Catholic academics against the condemnation of the Action Française, addressed to the bishops. L'Action française published it several months later, omitting the names of the signatories.[20].
  14. ↑ He taught at the high schools of Alençon (until 1936), Annecy (until 1938) and Versailles (Lycée Hoche).[21] He gave a study to the Cercle on the democratic university, the fatherland and peace, praised by the AF.[22] He gave lectures to AF students in Normandy in 1935 on Hitlerism, establishing that its essential principle was racism, leading to elimination and subjugation. He is said to have asserted that integral nationalism and dynasty alone can ensure the security of France.[23] His name appears on a subscription list of the royalist daily newspaper in 1936.[24] One of his articles given to the Ecole française, criticizing the "democratic pacifism", pays homage to Maurras: "[...] we can neither forget nor keep silent the name of the one who contributed the most to remake our conscience and to save us from dishonor: Charles Maurras."[25].
  15. ↑ A philosophy teacher at the Casablanca high school, he contributed to Combat of Algiers and was a member of the National Council of the Resistance's commission for the reform of education, which met in Algiers in March 1944. He was promoted to Director of Secondary Education of the National Education Commission of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in 1944, then Inspector General of Arts on March 1, 1945. He was the third president of the Conseil supérieur d'enquête (CSE), instituted by the decree of October 26, 1944 and in charge of the purification of teachers (it centralized the files, formulated the final proposals, after additional investigations if it so wished, before the minister made a decision).[26]
  16. ↑ Le Monde published several of his "free opinions". In 1953, he protested against the ban on communists taking the ENA competitive examination, citing the Declaration of Human Rights[27] He evoked the crisis of parliamentarianism to which "there is no other remedy than a return to the republican principle: 'The law is the expression of the general will'"[28] He evokes Pétain and the Vichy regime, in order to criticize it: "To the judgment made on Pétain by General de Gaulle, Mr. Georges Loustaunau-Lacau opposes, in Le Monde of October 31, the touching image of the marshal who, laden with glory and years, gave his person to France to alleviate its misfortune. He forgets one thing: that Pétain represents first of all a policy (...) The French State is the reversed image of the Republican State". He criticizes the thesis of the double game ("(The Germans) shot neither Pétain nor his ministers because the double game, practiced at the top of the State, served them. When, in order to deceive the occupying forces, you substitute Nazi principles for republican principles, it is the French that you mislead, breaking their conscience, corrupting the social bond, allowing traitors, sadists, and madmen to shelter behind your glory and your authority"), recalling the status of the Jews ("the word alone makes one shudder", he notes), that "a fanatic (Xavier Vallat, who was close to the Action Française) would be appointed, in March 1941, as commissioner for Jewish affairs: He will organize a census, sorting, deportations" and that the King of Denmark "goes to the synagogue, attends a solemn service, and declares that at the first racial measure he will wear the yellow star". He refused the burial of the Marshal at Douaumont, as requested by the Petainists: "In this way, the Republic would grant the French State a beginning of legitimacy. It would admit the fundamental identity of Vichy and Free France, of the shooters and the shot, of the executioners and their victims. [...] The Republic affirms that all men are born and remain equal in rights. Pétain denounced "the false idea of natural equality between men".[29] To rehabilitate Pétain is to say no to the first thesis, yes to the second (...) In 1954, to transfer the body of the Marshal to Douaumont is to take a step on the road to the Third World War, to fascism and crematoria"[30] He denounced the policy carried out by the government during the Algerian war[31] and that of the governor general of Algeria Jacques Soustelle[32] An Algeria where "the Algerians know that the status of Algeria, voted in 1947, is not yet applied in 1956".[33] In this last text, he wrote: "In any case, if we refuse the masses the right to learn freedom at their own risk and ours, let us understand that we are choosing to wage war on the overwhelming majority of the human race and to destroy democracy and common sense in others and in ourselves. Since the death of Roosevelt, America has had only right-wing reflexes, and has gone from failure to injustice and absurdity [...] Will it be necessary, to begin with, for the ministers of the Republican Front to order the napalming of Algeria?" He went so far as to wish for a new popular front, including the communists, in order to be able to conduct a policy of negotiation in Algeria. He participated in the first draft in 1955 of the Democratic Union of Labor, which denounced both the Paris Agreements (1955), wishing disarmament and peace, and the restoration in France, "under the pretext of anti-communism, of a pre-fascist climate", the "revival of the Vichy press [...] which develops racist theses".[34] He co-signed an address to the Parliament asking it to reject the project of extension of special powers in Algeria (it reads: "It is not an exaggeration to say that the government bill is of Nazi or Vichy inspiration".[35] and called for peace in Algeria in 1957–58.[36] It called for a silent march and meditation on Sunday, April 23, 1961, in front of the Jewish Martyrdom Memorial, on the occasion of the trial of Adolf Eichmann[37], and in 1962, it joined the national day against racism and anti-Semitism of the MRAP.[38] He criticized the Gaullist Fifth Republic because it gave too much power to the President of the Republic and reduced "the political influence of the people"[39] In the June 29, 1968 article, entitled "Le plus grand péril", he says: "Under the Fifth Republic, the people, reputed to be infallible, choose a leader, and then this leader, infallible in his turn since he embodies this people, reigns without control over citizens reputed to be stupid". He also criticizes the police state.[40]
  17. ↑ Prevented once again in 1930, he attended in 1931, 1932, 1934, 1936, 1938, 1939. He sent a letter from prison in 1937, read by Dunoyer.
  18. ↑ A polytechnician and a company director, he was president of the Action Française section in the 8th arrondissement, then a member of the committee of the Parisian federation and finally vice-president of the AF league when it was dissolved in 1936, and de facto president. He was also a member of the Duke of Guise's honorary service and an associate of the company that published the Courrier royal du prétendant in December 1934.
  19. ↑ He also participated in the banquets of 1931, 1932, 1933 and 1936, and gave a conference in 1932 on Lucien Herr, "an occult force of the Third Republic".[42]
  20. ↑ He was a speaker at the Circle on several occasions, for example on the relationship between the school and the army,[43] and also participated in the banquets of 1934, 1935 and 1937.[44]
  21. ↑ Philippe Ariès took part in it.
  22. ↑ A pedagogical commission of the Circle reflected on this renovation.
  23. ↑ He encountered difficulties at the Liberation to continue his activity as a teacher but a complaint lodged against him was not followed up.[68]
  24. ↑ He gives a speech at the 1956 banquet (Technique and humanism) (Cahiers du cercle, July 1956), presides over a lunch in 1957 of the Bordeaux section on the theme "defense of the liberal professions and French liberties" (Cahiers, May 1957. Boegner attended, along with the former deputy of Bordeaux Paul Estèbe), reproduced in the July 1957 issue of Cahiers ("L'avenir des professions libérales"). Boegner signed an article in La Revue des deux mondes of October 1951, "Notre enseignement de culture".
  25. ↑ He participated in the 1955 banquet, signed with Boegner a text on "the unity of teacher training, principle of a true reform of teaching" in the July 1954 issue of the Cahiers and published another text in December 1957.
  26. ↑ He was president of the Society for Economics and Social Sciences, which brought together disciples of Le Play. Boegner wrote a text for his periodical on "the essential data of the problem of education" in 1948.[74] and joined his association in 1950.[75].

Citations

  1. ↑ "Le banquet Fustel de Coulanges," Le Figaro (2 juin 1932); "Le Cercle Fustel de Coulanges reprend ses travaux," Journal des débats (26 mars 1941).
  2. ↑ "Le banquet du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," L'Action française (2 juin 1932), p. 2.
  3. ↑ "Les discours du banquet du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," L'Action française (18 juin 1931); "Le banquet Fustel de Coulanges," L'Action française (15 juin 1934); "Le banquet du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," L'Action française (24 juin 1935).
  4. ↑ L'Action française (23 janvier 1934); L'Action française (24 décembre 1936); L'Action française (22 mars 1939)
  5. ↑ Barreau, Joël; Jean Guiffan & Jean-Louis Liters (1992). Un Grand lycée de province: Le Lycée Clemenceau de Nantes dans l’histoire et la littérature depuis le Premier Empire. Thonon-les-Bains: Éditions de l'Albaron.
  6. ↑ L'Action française (7 décembre 1932).
  7. ↑ Weber, Eugen (1962). L'Action française. Paris: Stock, p. 296.
  8. ↑ Ruimy, Laurence (1997). "La Revue de l'enseignement primaire et primaire supérieur, 1890-1914," Jean Jaurès. Cahiers trimestriels, No. 146, p. 19.
  9. ↑ L'Action française (23 décembre 1930); "Les obsèques de Pierre Dufrenne," L'Action française (28 décembre 1930); L'Action française (5 juin 1931); "Une condamnation de l'école unique," Le Figaro (12 août 1931).
  10. ↑ Huguet, Françoise; Boris Noguès (juin 2011). "Les professeurs des facultés des lettres et des sciences en France au XIXe siècle (1808-1880)". La faculté des lettres de Lyon.
  11. ↑ Sirinelli, Jean-François (1988). Génération intellectuelle: Khâgneux et Normaliens dans l'entre-deux-guerres. Paris: Fayard.
  12. ↑ Le Rappel (27 août 1901).
  13. ↑ Pellissier, Catherine; Bruno Dumons (1992). "La congrégation des Messieurs et la Société de Saint-Vincent de Paul à Lyon sous la Troisième République. Sociologie comparée," Revue d'histoire de l'Église de France, Vol. LXXVIII, No. 200, pp. 35–56.
  14. ↑ Laplanche, François (18 janvier 20). "Les intuitions de la Paroisse Universitaire," Chrétiens dans l'enseignement public; Comte, Bernard (28 juillet 2013). "L'Association Joseph Lotte, quelques repères historiques," Chrétiens dans l'enseignement public.
  15. ↑ Revue des lectures (15 juin 1936), p. 655. See also L'Action française (9 mai 1936); L'Action française (15 mai 1936); L'Action française (30 mai 1936); L'Action française (2 juin 1937).
  16. ↑ "Pour l'Ecole française," Le Figaro (9 août 1920), pp. 1, 2; "La Revue de l'école," Moniteur de la papeterie (1er février 1922).
  17. ↑ "Léon Bérard parle de Fustel de Coulanges," Le Figaro (20 juin 1930); "Au cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Le Temps (20 juin 1930).
  18. ↑ "Un magnifique banquet corporatif des professions libérales," L'Action française (18 mars 1935); L'Action française (14 juin 1929); L'Action française (8 mai 1935); L'Action française (17 mai 1935); Almanach de l'Action française (1935), p. 201. He came late to the Action française: "Toulouse: Le Cercle d'études politiques," L'Étudiant français (10 février 1935); L'Étudiant français (22 mars 1939).
  19. ↑ L'Action française (21 janvier 1932); L'Action française (14 juin 1929); Séances et travaux de l'Académie des sciences morales (1929); Bulletin de la Faculté des lettres de Strasbourg (1929).
  20. ↑ L'Action française (18 novembre 1928).
  21. ↑ L'Ouest-Eclair (16 septembre 1936).
  22. ↑ L'Action française (6 mars 1931).
  23. ↑ L'Action française (23 mai 1935).
  24. ↑ L'Action française (14 octobre 1936).
  25. ↑ "L'humanitarisme," L'Action française (1 juillet 1937).
  26. ↑ Singer, Claude (1997). L'université libérée, l'université épurée (1943-1947). Les Belles lettres, pp. 32, 181; Chevrel, Yves (2010). "Définir les lettres modernes: l'apport de la littérature comparée", Revue de littérature comparée, No. 336, pp. 463–70; Condette, Jean-François (2014). "'Les recteurs du Maréchal'. Administrer l’Éducation nationale dans les années noires de la Seconde Guerre mondiale (1940-1944)." In: Les Écoles dans la guerre: Acteurs et institutions éducatives dans les tourmentes guerrières (xviie-xxe siècles). Villeneuve d'Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion.
  27. ↑ "Le droit ou l'arbitraire," Le Monde (30 septembre 1953).
  28. ↑ "L'expression de la volonté générale," Le Monde (22 juin 1954).
  29. ↑ Message of October 11, 1940.
  30. ↑ "Pétain ou la République," Le Monde (9 novembre 1954).
  31. ↑ "Dans l'avant-port du fascisme," Le Monde (28 avril 1955): denunciation of the law on the state of emergency which institutes "legalized arbitrariness". See also "Rétablir le régime républicain," Le Monde (22 août 1957).
  32. ↑ "Les chimères du réalisme politique," Le Monde (1er septembre 1956); "Une lettre de M. Jacques Soustelle," Le Monde 4 septembre 1956).
  33. ↑ "Le front populaire aujourd'hui et demain," Le Monde (23 avril 1956).
  34. ↑ Le Monde (25 janvier 1955); "L'Union démocratique du travail prend nettement parti contre les accords de Paris," Le Monde (3 février 1955).
  35. ↑ Le Monde (8 juillet 1957).
  36. ↑ Le Monde (7 février 1958).
  37. ↑ Le Monde (19 avril 1961)
  38. ↑ Droit et liberté, No. 208 (15 avril/15 mai 1962), p. 3.
  39. ↑ "République française Napoléon empereur," Le Monde (22 septembre 1958); "République française Napoléon empereur," Le Monde (25 octobre 1962); "Un homme fort, des institutions faibles, une nation démoralisée," Le Monde (4 février 1967).
  40. ↑ "l'État policé et l'État policier," Le Monde (18 décembre 1969).
  41. ↑ "Un appel de l'UCI," Le Temps (30 avril 1935).
  42. ↑ "La journée," Comœdia (15 décembre 1932).
  43. ↑ "Au cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Journal des débats (28 octobre 1933).
  44. ↑ Bauer, Eddy (1948). "Nécrologie/ Le général Clément-Grandcourt," Revue militaire suisse, No. 93, p. 561.
  45. ↑ "Deux réunions importantes au Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Comœdia (22 février 1933).
  46. ↑ "Hommage de l'intelligence française à Charles Maurras. La réunion du cercle Fustel de Coulanges," L'Action française (24 décembre 1936), pp. 1, 3.
  47. ↑ "La réunion de rentrée au Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Le Figaro (30 octobre 1936).
  48. ↑ L'Action française (27 mars 1934); "Le congrès du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Comœdia (6 avril 1936); "Le congrès du cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Journal des débats (13 avril 1938).
  49. ↑ "L'Echo d'Alger," (20 mai 1935).
  50. ↑ "Billet du matin," Le Figaro (15 mai 1928); "Un Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Le Gaulois (18 mai 1928), p. 1; "Le cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Comœdia (20 mai 1928); "Le cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Journal des débats (12 novembre 1928).
  51. ↑ "Une observation justifiée," Journal des débats (13 mars 1932).
  52. ↑ L'Action française (18 juillet 1932); "Le Cercle Fustel de Coulanges proteste contre la circulaire sur l'école unique," Comœdia (19 juillet 1932).
  53. ↑ "Au Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Journal des débats (7 juillet 1937).
  54. ↑ "Une protestation du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Le Temps (24 mars 1936); "L'égalité est-elle un vain mot?," Journal des débats (24 mars 1936); "L'Université de Paris aux ordres du Front populaire. Un scandale au lycée Rollin," L'Action française (13 mars 1936).
  55. ↑ Le Temps (23 juillet 1936).
  56. ↑ L'Action française (3 juin 1932).
  57. ↑ L'Enseignement secondaire des jeunes filles: revue mensuelle (1916); "Melle de Beaucorps," L'Action française (12 février 1933); L'Action française (2 juin 1932); L'Action française (28 juin 1933).
  58. ↑ "La réunion du Cercle Fustel de Coulanges pour le 150e anniversaire de la Révolution," L'Action française, No. 126‎ (6 mai 1939), p. 2.
  59. ↑ "Ce que les sciences doivent à la Révolution de 1789," L'Action française, No. 128‎ (8 mai 1939), p. 4.
  60. ↑ "Le congrès national des professeurs de lycée discute l'adhésion à la CGT," Le Journal (28 mai 1934); "Les universitaires et la grève," Journal des débats (28 novembre 1938); P. Gerbod, "Associations et syndicalismes universitaires de 1929 à 1937," Le Mouvement social (octobre 1970).
  61. ↑ L'Action française (27 mars 1941); "Le Cercle Fustel de Coulanges reprend ses travaux," Journal des débats (26 mars 1941); "La conférence de M. Henri Massis sur Péguy," Journal des débats (8 juin 1941).
  62. ↑ L'Action française (16 janvier 1942); L'Action française (21 mars 1942).
  63. ↑ "M. Charles Maurras à Clermont," Journal des débats (29 mars 1941); "M. Charles Maurras parlera de Barrès le 17 juin à Clermont," Journal des débats (8 juin 1942); "Peut-on enseigner le patriotisme? Conférence de M. Albert Rivaud à Clermont-Ferrand," Journal des débats (17 avril 1943); "La conférence de M. Henri Massis sur Péguy," Journal des débats (8 juin 1941); "Mme André Corthis parle de l'Espagne de Franco," Journal des débats (7 mars 1942); "Cercle Fustel de Coulanges," Journal des débats (28 avril 1942); L'Action française (13 avril 1941); L'Action française (19 juin 1941); L'Action française (17 avril 1942).
  64. ↑ Valenti (2006), p. 24.
  65. ↑ Informations générales (23 février 1942); "La commission d'études des questions de jeunesse se réunira à Vichy le 5 mars," Journal des débats (23 février 1942).
  66. ↑ Gros (2008), p. 70.
  67. ↑ L'Action française (18 avril 1942).
  68. ↑ Gros (2008), p. 87.
  69. ↑ "Le Cercle Fustel de Coulanges et la réforme de l'enseignement," Le Monde (16 octobre 1958).
  70. ↑ Gros (2008), p. 104.
  71. ↑ Les Cahiers du CFC (juillet 1954).
  72. ↑ Les Cahiers du cercle (octobre 1956).
  73. ↑ Les Cahiers du CFC (juillet 1956).
  74. ↑ Les Etudes sociales (Avril 1948).
  75. ↑ Les Etudes sociales (Mai 1950), p. 12.
  76. ↑ Les Cahiers du CFC (juillet 1955).
  77. ↑ "Le Cercle Fustel de Coulanges va renaître," Le Monde (11 février 1966).
  78. ↑ Marty, Albert (1986). L'Action française racontée par elle-même. NEL, p. 482; Duranton-Crabol, Anne-Marie (1995). Le temps de l'OAS. Complexe, p. 103.

References

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